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Mary –
Mother of Jesus – Wikipedia
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Several terms redirect here. For other uses, see Mary,
Mother of Jesus (disambiguation), Mary of Nazareth (disambiguation), Mother
Mary (disambiguation), Saint Mary (disambiguation), Virgin Mary
(disambiguation), and St Mary the Virgin (disambiguation).
Mary
Born c. 18
BC[a]
Herodian Judea
Died After
c. 33 AD
Jerusalem, Province of Judaea, Roman Empire
or Ephesus, Province of Asia, Roman Empire[8][9]
Spouse Joseph
Children Jesus
Parent(s) Joachim
and Anne (according to some apocryphal writings)[b]
Mary[c] was a first-century Jewish woman of Nazareth,[11]
the wife of Joseph and the mother of Jesus. She is an important figure of
Christianity, venerated under various titles such as virgin or queen, many of
which are mentioned in the Litany of Loreto. The Eastern and Oriental Orthodox,
Catholic, Evangelical Lutheran, Reformed, Anglican, and Methodist churches
believe that Mary, as mother of Jesus, is the Mother of God. The Church of the
East historically regarded her as Christotokos, a term still used in the
liturgy of the Assyrian Church of the East.[12] She has the highest position in
Islam among all women and is mentioned numerous times in the Quran, including
in a chapter (surah) named after her.[13][14][15] She is also revered in the
Baháʼí and Druze faiths.[16]
The synoptic Gospels name Mary as the mother of Jesus. The
gospels of Matthew and Luke describe Mary as a virgin[d] who was chosen by God
to conceive Jesus through the Holy Spirit. After giving birth to Jesus in
Bethlehem, she and her husband Joseph raised him in the city of Nazareth in
Galilee, and she was in Jerusalem at his crucifixion and with the apostles
after his ascension. Although her later life is not accounted in the Bible,
Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, and some Protestant traditions believe that her
body was raised into heaven at the end of her earthly life, which is known in
Western Christianity as the Assumption of Mary and in Eastern Christianity as
the Dormition of the Mother of God.
Mary has been venerated since early Christianity,[20][21]
and is often considered to be the holiest and greatest saint. There is a
certain diversity in the Mariology and devotional practices of major Christian
traditions. The Catholic Church and some Oriental Orthodox Churches hold
distinctive Marian dogmas, namely her Immaculate Conception and her bodily
assumption into heaven.[22] Many Protestants hold various views of Mary's role
that they perceive as being in accordance with the Scriptures.[23][24] The
Confessions of the Lutheran Churches have taught the virgin birth, Theotokos,
and perpetual virginity.[25][26]
The multiple forms of Marian devotions include various
prayers and hymns, the celebration of several Marian feast days in liturgy,[24]
the veneration of images and relics, the construction of churches dedicated to
her and pilgrimages to Marian shrines. Many Marian apparitions and miracles
attributed to her intercession have been reported by believers over the
centuries. She has been a traditional subject in arts, notably in Byzantine
art, medieval art and Renaissance art.
Names and titles
Main article: Titles of Mary
Mary's name in the original manuscripts of the New
Testament was based on her original Hebrew name מרים
(Miryam), transliterated as Maryam or Mariam.[27] The English name Mary comes
from the Greek Μαρία, a shortened form of the name
Μαριάμ. Both Μαρία and Μαριάμ
appear in the New Testament.
In Christianity
In Christianity, Mary is commonly referred to as the Virgin
Mary, in accordance with the belief that the Holy Spirit impregnated her,
thereby conceiving her first-born son Jesus miraculously, without sexual
relations with her betrothed Joseph, "until her son [Jesus] was
born".[28] The word "until" has inspired considerable analysis
on whether Joseph and Mary produced siblings after the birth of Jesus or
not.[e] Among her many other names and titles are the Blessed Virgin Mary
(often abbreviated to "BVM"),[30] Saint Mary (occasionally), the
Mother of God (primarily in Western Christianity), the Theotokos (primarily in
Eastern Christianity), Our Lady (Medieval Italian: Madonna), and Queen of Heaven
(Regina caeli; see also here).[31][32] The title "queen of heaven"
had previously been used as an epithet for a number of goddesses, such as Isis,
or Ishtar.
Titles in use vary among Anglicans, Lutherans and other
Protestants, as well as Mormons, Catholics, Orthodox and other Christians.
The three main titles for Mary used by the Orthodox are
Theotokos (Θεοτόκος or
"God-bearer"), Aeiparthenos (ἀειπαρθένος)
which means ever-virgin, as confirmed in the Second Council of Constantinople
in 553, and Panagia (Παναγία) meaning
"all-holy".[33] Catholics use a wide variety of titles for Mary, and
these titles have in turn given rise to many artistic depictions.
The title Theotokos, which means "God-bearer",
was recognized at the Council of Ephesus in 431.[34][35] The direct equivalents
of title in Latin are Deipara and Dei Genitrix, although the phrase is more
often loosely translated into Latin as Mater Dei ("Mother of God"),
with similar patterns for other languages used in the Latin Church. However,
this same phrase in Greek (Μήτηρ Θεοῦ),
in the abbreviated form ΜΡ ΘΥ, is an indication commonly
attached to her image in Byzantine icons. The Council stated that the Church
Fathers "did not hesitate to speak of the holy Virgin as the Mother of
God".[36][37][38]
Some Marian titles have a direct scriptural basis. For
instance, the title "Queen Mother" has been given to Mary, as she was
the mother of Jesus, sometimes referred to as the "King of Kings" due
to his ancestral descent from King David.[39][40][41][42][43] This is also
based on the Hebrew tradition of the "Queen-Mother", the Gebirah or
"Great Lady".[44][45] Other titles have arisen from reported
miracles, special appeals, or occasions for calling on Mary.[f]
In Islam
Main article: Mary in Islam
In Islam, Mary is known as Maryam (Arabic: مريم,
romanized: Maryam), mother of Isa (عيسى بن مريم,
ʿĪsā ibn Maryām, lit. 'Jesus, son of Mary'). She is
often referred to by the honorific title "Sayyidatuna", meaning
"Our Lady"; this title is in parallel to "Sayyiduna"
("Our Lord"), used for the prophets.[50] A related term of endearment
is "Siddiqah",[51] meaning "she who confirms the truth" and
"she who believes sincerely completely". Another title for Mary is
"Qānitah", which signifies both constant submission to God and
absorption in prayer and invocation in Islam.[52] She is also called
"Tahira", meaning "one who has been purified" and
representing her status as one of two humans in creation to not be touched by
Satan at any point, the other being Jesus.[53] In the Quran, she is described
both as "the daughter of Imran" and "the sister of Aaron"
and Moses, alluding to Miriam from the Hebrew Bible.[54] However, the title of
"the sister of Aaron" is confirmed to be metaphorical (which is a
common figure of speech in Arabic) as per a Hadith from the Islamic prophet
Muhammad explaining Mary was indeed named after Miriam.[55]
Life in ancient sources
The Annunciation by Eustache Le Sueur, an example of 17th
century Marian art. The Angel Gabriel announces to Mary her pregnancy with
Jesus and offers her white lilies.
New Testament
The canonical Gospels and the Acts of the Apostles are the
primary sources of historical information about Mary.[56][57] They are almost
contemporary sources, as the synoptic Gospels and the Acts of the Apostles are
generally considered dating from around AD 66–90, while the gospel of John
dates from AD 90–110. They provide limited information about Mary, as they
primarily focus on the teaching of Jesus and on his apostles.[56] The
historical reliability of the Gospels and historical reliability of the Acts of
the Apostles are subject to debate, as it was common practice in early
Christian writings to mix historical facts with legendary stories.[56]
The earliest New Testament account of Mary is in the
epistle to the Galatians, which was written before the gospels. She is referred
to as "a woman" and is not named: "But when the fullness of time
had come, God sent his Son, born of a woman, born under the law"
(Galatians 4:4).[57]
Mary is mentioned several times in the canonical Gospels
and the Acts of the Apostles:
The Gospel of Luke mentions Mary the most often,
identifying her by name twelve times, all of these in the infancy narrative
(Luke 1:27–2:34).[58]
The Gospel of Matthew mentions her by name five times, four
of these (1:16, 18, 20; 2:11)[59] in the infancy narrative and once (Matthew
13:55)[60] outside the infancy narrative.
The Gospel of Mark names her once (Mark 6:3)[61] and
mentions Jesus' mother without naming her in Mark 3:31–32.[62]
The Gospel of John refers to the mother of Jesus twice, but
never mentions her name. She is first seen at the wedding at Cana (John
2:1–12).[63] The second reference has her standing near the cross of Jesus
together with Mary Magdalene, Mary of Clopas (or Cleophas), and her own sister
(possibly the same as Mary of Clopas; the wording is semantically ambiguous),
along with the "disciple whom Jesus loved" (John 19:25–26).[64] John
2:1–12[63] is the only text in the canonical gospels in which the adult Jesus
has a conversation with Mary. He does not address her as "Mother" but
as "Woman". In Koine Greek (the language that the Gospel of John was
composed in), calling one's mother "Woman" was not disrespectful, and
could even be tender.[65] Accordingly, some versions of the Bible translate it
as "Dear woman".[66]
In the Acts of the Apostles, Mary and the brothers of Jesus
are mentioned in the company of the eleven apostles who are gathered in the
upper room after the Ascension of Jesus (Acts 1:14).[67]
In the Book of Revelation, also part of the New Testament,
the "woman clothed with the sun" (Revelation 12:1, 12:5–6)[68] is
sometimes identified as Mary.
Genealogy
Further information: Genealogy of Jesus
The New Testament tells little of Mary's early history. The
Gospel of Matthew gives a genealogy for Jesus by his father's paternal line,
only identifying Mary as the wife of Joseph. John 19:25[69] states that Mary
had a sister; semantically it is unclear if this sister is the same as Mary of
Clopas, or if she is left unnamed. Jerome identifies Mary of Clopas as the
sister of Mary, mother of Jesus.[70] According to the early 2nd century
historian Hegesippus, Mary of Clopas was likely Mary's sister-in-law,
understanding Clopas (Cleophas) to have been Joseph's brother.[71]
According to the writer of Luke, Mary was a relative of
Elizabeth, wife of the priest Zechariah of the priestly division of Abijah, who
was herself part of the lineage of Aaron and so of the Tribe of Levi.[72] Some
of those who believe that the relationship with Elizabeth was on the maternal
side, believe that Mary, like Joseph, was of the royal Davidic line and so of
the Tribe of Judah, and that the genealogy of Jesus presented in Luke 3 from
Nathan, is in fact the genealogy of Mary, while the genealogy from Solomon
given in Matthew 1 is that of Joseph.[73][74][75] (Aaron's wife Elisheba was of
the tribe of Judah, so all their descendants are from both Levi and Judah.)[76]
Annunciation
Main article: Annunciation
Mary resided in "her own house"[77] in Nazareth
in Galilee, possibly with her parents, and during her betrothal—the first stage
of a Jewish marriage. Jewish girls were considered marriageable at the age of
twelve years and six months, though the actual age of the bride varied with circumstances.
The marriage was preceded by the betrothal, after which the bride legally
belonged to the bridegroom, though she did not live with him till about a year
later, when the marriage was celebrated.[78]
The angel Gabriel announced to her that she was to be the
mother of the promised Messiah by conceiving him through the Holy Spirit, and,
after initially expressing incredulity at the announcement, she responded,
"I am the handmaid of the Lord. Let it be done unto me according to your
word."[79][g] Joseph planned to quietly divorce her, but was told her
conception was by the Holy Spirit in a dream by "an angel of the
Lord"; the angel told him to not hesitate to take her as his wife, which
Joseph did, thereby formally completing the wedding rites.[80][81]
Since the angel Gabriel had told Mary that Elizabeth—having
previously been barren—was then miraculously pregnant,[82] Mary hurried to see
Elizabeth, who was living with her husband Zechariah in "the hill
country..., [in] a city of Juda". Mary arrived at the house and greeted
Elizabeth who called Mary "the mother of my Lord", and Mary spoke the
words of praise that later became known as the Magnificat from her first word
in the Latin version.[83] After about three months, Mary returned to her own
house.[84]
Birth of Jesus
Main article: Nativity of Jesus
According to the gospel of Luke, a decree of the Roman
Emperor Augustus required that Joseph return to his hometown of Bethlehem to
register for a Roman census.[h] While he was there with Mary, she gave birth to
Jesus; but because there was no place for them in the inn, she used a manger as
a cradle.[86]: p.14 [87] It is not told how old Mary was at the
time of the Nativity,[88] but attempts have been made to infer it from the age
of a typical Jewish mother of that time. Mary Joan Winn Leith represents the view
that Jewish girls typically married soon after the onset of puberty,[89] while
according to Amram Tropper, Jewish females generally married later in Palestine
and the Western Diaspora than in Babylonia.[90] Some scholars hold the view
that among them it typically happened between their mid and late teen years[91]
or late teens and early twenties.[88][90] After eight days, the boy was
circumcised according to Jewish law and named "Jesus" (ישוע,
Yeshu'a), which means "Yahweh is salvation".[92]
After Mary continued in the "blood of her
purifying" another 33 days, for a total of 40 days, she brought her burnt
offering and sin offering to the Temple in Jerusalem (Luke 2:22),[93] so the
priest could make atonement for her.[94] They also presented Jesus – "As
it is written in the law of the Lord, Every male that openeth the womb shall be
called holy to the Lord" (Luke 2:23; Exodus 13:2; 23:12–15; 22:29;
34:19–20; Numbers 3:13; 18:15).[95] After the prophecies of Simeon and the
prophetess Anna in Luke 2:25–38,[96] the family "returned into Galilee, to
their own city Nazareth".[97]
According to the gospel of Matthew, magi coming from
Eastern regions arrived at Bethlehem where Jesus and his family were living,
and worshiped him. Joseph was then warned in a dream that King Herod wanted to
murder the infant, and the family fled by night to Egypt and stayed there for
some time. After Herod's death in 4 BC, they returned to Nazareth in Galilee,
rather than Bethlehem, because Herod's son Archelaus was the ruler of Judaea.[98]
Mary is involved in the only event in Jesus' adolescent
life that is recorded in the New Testament. At the age of 12, Jesus, having
become separated from his parents on their return journey from the Passover
celebration in Jerusalem, was found in the Temple among the religious
teachers.[99]: p.210 [100]
Ministry of Jesus
Mary was present when, at her suggestion, Jesus worked his
first miracle during a wedding at Cana by turning water into wine.[101]
Subsequently, there are events when Mary is mentioned along with the Jesus'
brothers.[102] According to Epiphanius, Origen and Eusebius, these
"brothers" would be sons of Joseph from a previous marriage. This
view is still the official position of the Eastern Orthodox churches. Following
Jerome, those would be actually Jesus' cousins, children of Mary's sister. This
remains the official Roman Catholic position. For Helvidius, those would be
full siblings of Jesus, born to Mary and Joseph after the firstborn Jesus. This
has been the most common Protestant position.[103][104][105]
The hagiography of Mary and the Holy Family can be
contrasted with other material in the Gospels. These references include an
incident which can be interpreted as Jesus rejecting his family in the New
Testament: "And his mother and his brothers arrived, and standing outside,
they sent in a message asking for him ... And looking at those who sat in a
circle around him, Jesus said, 'These are my mother and my brothers. Whoever
does the will of God is my brother, and sister, and mother'."[106][107]
Mary is also depicted as being present in a group of women
at the crucifixion standing near the disciple whom Jesus loved along with Mary
of Clopas and Mary Magdalene,[64] to which list Matthew 27:56[108] adds
"the mother of the sons of Zebedee", presumably the Salome mentioned
in Mark 15:40.[109]
After the Ascension of Jesus
In Acts 1:12–26,[110] especially verse 14, Mary is the only
one other than the eleven apostles to be mentioned by name who abode in the
upper room, when they returned from Mount Olivet. Her presence with the
apostles during the Pentecost is not explicit, although it has been held as a
fact by Christian tradition.[111]
From this time, she disappears from the biblical accounts,
although it is held by Catholics that she is again portrayed as the heavenly
woman in the Book of Revelation.[112]
Her death is not recorded in the scriptures, but Orthodox
tradition, tolerated also by Catholics, has her first dying a natural death,
known as the Dormition of Mary,[113] and then, soon after, her body itself also
being assumed (taken bodily) into Heaven. Belief in the corporeal assumption of
Mary is a dogma of the Catholic Church, in the Latin and Eastern Catholic
Churches alike, and is believed as well by the Eastern Orthodox
Church,[114][115] the Oriental Orthodox Church, and parts of the Anglican
Communion and Continuing Anglican movement.[116]
Some apocryphal texts add further narrative elements to the
story of Mary, although scholars generally consider such texts to be
historically mainly unreliable.[117] According to the Gospel of James, Mary was
the daughter of Joachim and Anne. Before Mary's conception, Anne had been
barren and was far advanced in years. Mary was given to service as a
consecrated virgin in the Temple in Jerusalem when she was three years
old.[118] This event is commemorated by some Christian churches as a liturgical
feast, the Presentation of Mary, even though its premise conflicts with common
understandings of Jewish culture and temple customs.[119] The Gospel of James
also states that Mary was 12–14 years old at the time of her betrothal to
Joseph,[120] and that she was 16 during her pregnancy,[121] according to most
manuscripts.[122][123][2][124] According to ancient Jewish custom, Mary could
have been betrothed at 12,[125] but some scholars hold the view that in Judea
betrothal typically happened later.[88] The text underlines that the
relationship between Mary and Joseph was a non-sexual social arrangement, and
that Mary was dedicated to God. It emphasizes holiness of Mary and the virginal
nature of her pregnancy.[126]
Although the canonical gospels contain no account of Mary's
life after the resurrection, texts written centuries later provide some
embellishment. The origin and authenticity of these details are unknown. The
earliest extant biographical writing on Mary is Life of the Virgin, attributed
to the 7th-century saint Maximus the Confessor, which portrays her as a key
element of the early Christian Church after the death of Jesus.[127][128][129]
Hyppolitus of Thebes, writing in the 7th or 8th century, says that Mary lived
for 11 years after the death of her son, dying in 41 AD.[130]
Religious perspectives
Blessed Virgin Mary
Western Christianity:
Mother of God, Queen of Heaven, Mother of the Church (see
Titles of Mary)
Eastern Christianity:
Theotokos
Islam:
Sayyidatna ("Our Lady"), Greatest Woman, the
Chosen One, the Purified One
Venerated in All
Christian denominations that venerate saints [i]
Islam
Druze faith[131]
Canonized Pre-Congregation
Major shrine Santa
Maria Maggiore (See Marian shrines)
Feast See Marian
feast days
Attributes Blue
mantle, crown of 12 stars, pregnant woman, roses, woman with child, woman
trampling serpent, crescent moon, woman clothed with the sun, heart pierced by
sword, rosary beads
Patronage See
Patronage of the Blessed Virgin Mary
Christian
See also: Mariology, Theotokos, and Hymns to Mary
Christian Marian perspectives include a great deal of
diversity. While some Christians such as Catholics and Eastern Orthodox have
well established Marian traditions, Protestants at large pay scant attention to
Mariological themes. Catholics, Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, Lutherans
and Anglicans venerate the Virgin Mary. This veneration especially takes the
form of prayer for intercession with her Son, Jesus Christ. Additionally, it
includes composing poems and songs in Mary's honor, painting icons or carving
statues of her, and conferring titles on Mary that reflect her position among
the saints.[32][33][132][133]
Catholic
Main article: Veneration of Mary in the Catholic Church
In the Catholic Church, Mary is accorded the title
"Blessed" (beata, μακάρια,
makaria) in recognition of her assumption to Heaven and her capacity to
intercede on behalf of those who pray to her. There is a difference between the
usage of the term "blessed" as pertaining to Mary and its usage as
pertaining to a beatified person. "Blessed" as a Marian title refers
to her exalted state as being the greatest among the saints; for a person who
has been declared beatified, on the other hand, "blessed" simply
indicates that they may be venerated despite not being canonized. Catholic
teachings make clear that Mary is not considered divine and prayers to her are
not answered by her, but rather by God through her intercession.[134] The four
Catholic dogmas regarding Mary are: her status as Theotokos, or Mother of God;
her perpetual virginity; the Immaculate Conception; and her bodily Assumption
into Heaven.[135][136][137]
The Blessed Virgin Mary, the mother of Jesus has a more
central role in Roman Catholic teachings and beliefs than in any other major
Christian group. Not only do Roman Catholics have more theological doctrines
and teachings that relate to Mary, but they have more feasts, prayers,
devotional and venerative practices than any other group.[132] The Catechism of
the Catholic Church states: "The Church's devotion to the Blessed Virgin
is intrinsic to Christian worship."[138]
For centuries, Catholics have performed acts of
consecration and entrustment to Mary at personal, societal and regional levels.
These acts may be directed to the Virgin herself, to the Immaculate Heart of
Mary and to the Immaculate Conception. In Catholic teachings, consecration to
Mary does not diminish or substitute the love of God, but enhances it, for all
consecration is ultimately made to God.[139][140]
Following the growth of Marian devotions in the 16th
century, Catholic saints wrote books such as Glories of Mary and True Devotion
to Mary that emphasized Marian veneration and taught that "the path to
Jesus is through Mary".[141] Marian devotions are at times linked to
Christocentric devotions (such as the Alliance of the Hearts of Jesus and
Mary).[142]
Major Marian devotions include: Seven Sorrows of Mary,
Rosary and scapular, Miraculous Medal and Reparations to Mary.[143][144] The
months of May and October are traditionally "Marian months" for Roman
Catholics; the daily rosary is encouraged in October and in May Marian
devotions take place in many regions.[145][146][147] Popes have issued a number
of Marian encyclicals and Apostolic Letters to encourage devotions to and the
veneration of the Virgin Mary.
Catholics place high emphasis on Mary's roles as protector
and intercessor and the Catechism refers to Mary as "honored with the
title 'Mother of God', to whose protection the faithful fly in all their dangers
and needs".[138][148][149][150][151] Key Marian prayers include: Ave
Maria, Alma Redemptoris Mater, Sub tuum praesidium, Ave maris stella, Regina
caeli, Ave Regina caelorum and the Magnificat.[152]
Mary's participation in the processes of salvation and
redemption has also been emphasized in the Catholic tradition, but they are not
doctrines.[153][154][155][156] Pope John Paul II's 1987 encyclical Redemptoris
Mater began with the sentence: "The Mother of the Redeemer has a precise
place in the plan of salvation."[157]
In the 20th century, both popes John Paul II and Benedict
XVI emphasized the Marian focus of the Catholic Church. Cardinal Joseph
Ratzinger (later Pope Benedict XVI) suggested a redirection of the whole church
towards the program of Pope John Paul II in order to ensure an authentic
approach to Christology via a return to the "whole truth about
Mary,"[158] writing:
"It is necessary to go back to Mary if we want to
return to that 'truth about Jesus Christ,' 'truth about the Church' and 'truth
about man.'"[158]
There is significant diversity in the Marian doctrines
attributed to her primarily by the Catholic Church. The key Marian doctrines
held primarily in Catholicism can be briefly outlined as follows:
Immaculate Conception: Mary was conceived without original
sin.
Mother of God: Mary, as the mother of Jesus, is the
Theotokos (God-bearer), or Mother of God.
Virgin birth of Jesus: Mary conceived Jesus by action of
the Holy Spirit while remaining a virgin.
Perpetual Virginity: Mary remained a virgin all her life,
even after the act of giving birth to Jesus.
Dormition: commemorates Mary's "falling asleep"
or natural death shortly before her Assumption. Dormition is part of accepted
Eastern Catholic theology, but not part of Latin Catholic doctrine.[159]
Assumption: Mary was taken bodily into heaven either at, or
before, her death.
The title "Mother of God" (Theotokos) for Mary
was confirmed by the First Council of Ephesus, held at the Church of Mary in
431. The Council decreed that Mary is the Mother of God because her son Jesus
is one person who is both God and man, divine and human.[36] This doctrine is
widely accepted by Christians in general, and the term "Mother of
God" had already been used within the oldest known prayer to Mary, the Sub
tuum praesidium, which dates to around 250 AD.[166][25][26]
The Virgin birth of Jesus was an almost universally held
belief among Christians from the 2nd until the 19th century.[167] It is
included in the two most widely used Christian creeds, which state that Jesus
"was incarnate of the Holy Spirit and the Virgin Mary" (the Nicene
Creed, in what is now its familiar form)[168] and the Apostles' Creed. The
Gospel of Matthew describes Mary as a virgin who fulfilled the prophecy of
Isaiah 7:14,[169] The authors of the Gospels of Matthew and Luke consider
Jesus' conception not the result of intercourse, and assert that Mary had
"no relations with man" before Jesus' birth.[170] This alludes to the
belief that Mary conceived Jesus through the action of God the Holy Spirit, and
not through intercourse with Joseph or anyone else.[171]
The doctrines of the Assumption or Dormition of Mary relate
to her death and bodily assumption to heaven. Roman Catholic Church has
dogmatically defined the doctrine of the Assumption, which was done in 1950 by
Pope Pius XII in Munificentissimus Deus. Whether Mary died or not is not
defined dogmatically, however, although a reference to the death of Mary is
made in Munificentissimus Deus. In the Eastern Orthodox Church, the Assumption
of the Virgin Mary is believed, and celebrated with her Dormition, where they
believe she died.
Catholics believe in the Immaculate Conception of Mary, as
proclaimed ex cathedra by Pope Pius IX in 1854, namely that she was filled with
grace from the very moment of her conception in her mother's womb and preserved
from the stain of original sin. The Latin Church has a liturgical feast by that
name, kept on 8 December.[172] Orthodox Christians reject the Immaculate
Conception dogma principally because their understanding of ancestral sin (the
Greek term corresponding to the Latin "original sin") differs from
the Augustinian interpretation and that of the Catholic Church.[173]
The Perpetual Virginity of Mary asserts Mary's real and
perpetual virginity even in the act of giving birth to the Son of God made Man.
The term Ever-Virgin (Greek ἀειπάρθενος)
is applied in this case, stating that Mary remained a virgin for the remainder of
her life, making Jesus her biological and only son, whose conception and birth
are held to be miraculous.[135][171][174] The Orthodox Churches hold the
position articulated in the Protoevangelium of James that Jesus' brothers and
sisters were Joseph's children from a marriage prior to that of Mary, which had
left him widowed. Roman Catholic teaching follows the Latin father Jerome in
considering them Jesus' cousins.
Eastern Orthodox
Eastern Orthodox Christianity includes a large number of
traditions regarding the Ever-Virgin Mary, the Theotokos.[175] The Orthodox
believe that she was and remained a virgin before and after Christ's birth.[33]
The Theotokia (hymns to the Theotokos) are an essential part of the Divine
Services in the Eastern Church and their positioning within the liturgical
sequence effectively places the Theotokos in the most prominent place after
Christ.[176] Within the Orthodox tradition, the order of the saints begins
with: the Theotokos, Angels, Prophets, Apostles, Fathers and Martyrs, giving
the Virgin Mary precedence over the angels. She is also proclaimed as the
"Lady of the Angels".[176]
The views of the Church Fathers still play an important
role in the shaping of Orthodox Marian perspective. However, the Orthodox views
on Mary are mostly doxological, rather than academic: they are expressed in
hymns, praise, liturgical poetry, and the veneration of icons. One of the most
loved Orthodox Akathists (standing hymns) is devoted to Mary and it is often
simply called the Akathist Hymn.[177] Five of the twelve Great Feasts in
Orthodoxy are dedicated to Mary.[33] The Sunday of Orthodoxy directly links the
Virgin Mary's identity as Mother of God with icon veneration.[178] A number of
Orthodox feasts are connected with the miraculous icons of the Theotokos.[176]
The Orthodox view Mary as "superior to all created
beings", although not divine.[179] As such, the designation of Saint to
Mary as Saint Mary is not appropriate.[180] The Orthodox does not venerate Mary
as conceived immaculate. Gregory of Nazianzus, Archbishop of Constantinople in
the 4th century AD, speaking on the Nativity of Jesus Christ argues that
"Conceived by the Virgin, who first in body and soul was purified by the
Holy Ghost, He came forth as God with that which He had assumed, One Person in
two Natures, Flesh and Spirit, of which the latter defined the
former."[181] The Orthodox celebrate the Dormition of the Theotokos,
rather than Assumption.[33]
The Protoevangelium of James, an extra-canonical book, has
been the source of many Orthodox beliefs on Mary. The account of Mary's life
presented includes her consecration as a virgin at the temple at age three. The
high priest Zachariah blessed Mary and informed her that God had magnified her
name among many generations. Zachariah placed Mary on the third step of the
altar, whereby God gave her grace. While in the temple, Mary was miraculously
fed by an angel, until she was 12 years old. At that point, an angel told Zachariah
to betroth Mary to a widower in Israel, who would be indicated. This story
provides the theme of many hymns for the Feast of Presentation of Mary, and
icons of the feast depict the story.[182] The Orthodox believe that Mary was
instrumental in the growth of Christianity during the life of Jesus, and after
his Crucifixion, and Orthodox theologian Sergei Bulgakov has written: "The
Virgin Mary is the centre, invisible, but real, of the Apostolic Church."
Theologians from the Orthodox tradition have made prominent
contributions to the development of Marian thought and devotion. John Damascene
(c. 650 – c. 750) was one of the greatest Orthodox theologians.
Among other Marian writings, he proclaimed the essential nature of Mary's
heavenly Assumption or Dormition and her meditative role.
It was necessary that the body of the one who preserved her
virginity intact in giving birth should also be kept incorrupt after death. It
was necessary that she, who carried the Creator in her womb when he was a baby,
should dwell among the tabernacles of heaven.[183]
From her we have harvested the grape of life; from her we
have cultivated the seed of immortality. For our sake she became Mediatrix of
all blessings; in her God became man, and man became God.[184]
More recently, Sergei Bulgakov expressed the Orthodox
sentiments towards Mary as follows:[179]
Mary is not merely the instrument, but the direct positive
condition of the Incarnation, its human aspect. Christ could not have been
incarnate by some mechanical process, violating human nature. It was necessary
for that nature itself to say for itself, by the mouth of the most pure human
being: "Behold the handmaid of the Lord, be it unto me according to Thy
word."
Protestant
Protestants in general reject the veneration and invocation
of the Saints.[23]: 1174 They share the belief that Mary is the
mother of Jesus and "blessed among women" (Luke 1:42)[185] but they
generally do not agree that Mary is to be venerated. She is considered to be an
outstanding example of a life dedicated to God.[186] As such, they tend not to
accept certain church doctrines such as her being preserved from sin.[187]
Theologian Karl Barth wrote that "the heresy of the Catholic Church is its
Mariology".[188]
Early Protestantism had high regard for Mary. Martin Luther
wrote that: "Mary is full of grace, proclaimed to be entirely without sin.
God's grace fills her with everything good and makes her devoid of all
evil."[189] John Calvin remarked, "It cannot be denied that God in
choosing and destining Mary to be the Mother of his Son, granted her the
highest honor."[j] However, Calvin firmly rejected the notion that Mary
can intercede between Christ and man.[192]
Although Calvin and Huldrych Zwingli honored Mary as the
Mother of Christ in the 16th century, they did so less than Martin Luther.[193]
Thus the idea of respect and high honor for Mary was not rejected by the first
Protestants; however, they came to criticize the Roman Catholics for venerating
Mary. Following the Council of Trent in the 16th century, as Marian veneration
became associated with Catholics, Protestant interest in Mary decreased. During
the Age of the Enlightenment, any residual interest in Mary within Protestant
churches almost disappeared, although Anglicans and Lutherans continued to
honor her.[23]
In the 20th century, some Protestants reacted in opposition
to the Catholic dogma of the Assumption of Mary.[194] The tone of the Second
Vatican Council began to mend the ecumenical differences, and Protestants began
to show interest in Marian themes.[citation needed] In 1997 and 1998,
ecumenical dialogues between Catholics and Protestants took place, but, to
date, the majority of Protestants disagree with Marian veneration and some view
it as a challenge to the authority of Scripture.[23][better source needed]
Lutheran
Main article: Lutheran Mariology
Evangelical-Lutheranism regards her as the Blessed Virgin
Mary, with this codified in the Formula of Concord.[26][195] The
Evangelical-Lutheran Churches celebrate several Marian feast days, including
the Feast of the Annunciation of the Blessed Virgin Mary, Feast of the
Purification of the Blessed Virgin Mary, and the Visitation of the Blessed
Virgin Mary.[24] The Formula of Concord and the Smalcald Articles, upheld by
the Lutheran Churches, teach the virgin birth, Theotokos and the perpetual
virginity of Mary.[25][26] The Apology of the Augsburg Confession teaches that
"blessed Mary prays for the Church".[196]
Theologians agree that Martin Luther adhered to the Marian
decrees of the ecumenical councils and dogmas of the church. He held fast to
the belief that Mary was a perpetual virgin and Mother of God.[197][198]
Special attention is given to the assertion that Luther, some 300 years before
the dogmatization of the Immaculate Conception by Pope Pius IX in 1854, was a
firm adherent of that view.[citation needed] Others maintain that Luther in
later years changed his position on the Immaculate Conception, which, at that
time was undefined in the church, maintaining however the sinlessness of Mary
throughout her life.[199][200] For Luther, early in his life, the Assumption of
Mary was an understood fact, although he later stated that the Bible did not
say anything about it and stopped celebrating its feast. Important to him was
the belief that Mary and the saints do live on after death.[201][202][203]
"Throughout his career as a priest-professor-reformer, Luther preached,
taught, and argued about the veneration of Mary with a verbosity that ranged from
childlike piety to sophisticated polemics. His views are intimately linked to
his Christocentric theology and its consequences for liturgy and
piety."[204] Luther, while revering Mary, came to criticize the
"Papists" for blurring the line between high admiration of the grace
of God wherever it is seen in a human being, and religious service given to
another creature. He considered the Roman Catholic practice of celebrating
saints' days and making intercessory requests addressed especially to Mary and
other departed saints to be idolatry.[205][206] His final thoughts on Marian
devotion and veneration are preserved in a sermon preached at Wittenberg only a
month before his death:
Therefore, when we preach faith, that we should worship
nothing but God alone, the Father of our Lord Jesus Christ, as we say in the
Creed: 'I believe in God the Father almighty and in Jesus Christ,' then we are
remaining in the temple at Jerusalem. Again,'This is my beloved Son; listen to
him.' 'You will find him in a manger'. He alone does it. But reason says the
opposite: What, us? Are we to worship only Christ? Indeed, shouldn't we also
honor the holy mother of Christ? She is the woman who bruised the head of the
serpent. Hear us, Mary, for thy Son so honors thee that he can refuse thee
nothing. Here Bernard went too far in his Homilies on the Gospel: Missus est
Angelus.[207] God has commanded that we should honor the parents; therefore I
will call upon Mary. She will intercede for me with the Son, and the Son with
the Father, who will listen to the Son. So you have the picture of God as angry
and Christ as judge; Mary shows to Christ her breast and Christ shows his
wounds to the wrathful Father. That's the kind of thing this comely bride, the
wisdom of reason cooks up: Mary is the mother of Christ, surely Christ will
listen to her; Christ is a stern judge, therefore I will call upon St. George
and St. Christopher. No, we have been by God's command baptized in the name of
the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit, just as the Jews were
circumcised.[208][209]
Certain Lutheran churches such as the Anglo-Lutheran
Catholic Church venerate Mary and the saints in the same manner that Roman
Catholics do, and hold all Marian dogmas as part of their faith.[210]
Anglican
Main article: Anglican Marian theology
The various churches that form the Anglican Communion and
the Continuing Anglican movement have different views on Marian doctrines and
venerative practices given that there is no single church with universal
authority within the Communion and that the mother church (the Church of
England) understands itself to be both "Catholic" and
"Reformed".[211] The Anglican Communion includes segments which still
retain some veneration of Mary.[133]
Mary's special position within God's purpose of salvation
as "God-bearer" is recognized in a number of ways by some Anglican
Christians.[212] All the member churches of the Anglican Communion affirm in
the historic creeds that Jesus was born of the Virgin Mary, and celebrates the
feast days of the Presentation of Christ in the Temple. This feast is called in
older prayer books the Purification of the Blessed Virgin Mary on 2 February.
The Annunciation of our Lord to the Blessed Virgin on 25 March was from before
the time of Bede until the 18th century New Year's Day in England. The
Annunciation is called the "Annunciation of our Lady" in the 1662
Book of Common Prayer. Anglicans also celebrate in the Visitation of the
Blessed Virgin on 31 May, though in some provinces the traditional date of 2 July
is kept. The feast of the St. Mary the Virgin is observed on the traditional
day of the Assumption, 15 August. The Nativity of the Blessed Virgin is kept on
8 September.[133]
The Conception of the Blessed Virgin Mary is kept in the
1662 Book of Common Prayer, on 8 December. In certain Anglican parishes of
Anglo-Catholic churchmanship, this feast is called the Immaculate Conception.
Again, the Assumption of Mary is believed in by most Anglo-Catholics, but is
considered a pious opinion by moderate Anglicans. Reformed Anglicans reject the
celebration of these feasts.[133]
Prayers and venerative practices vary greatly. For
instance, as of the 19th century, following the Oxford Movement,
Anglo-Catholics frequently pray the Rosary, the Angelus, Regina caeli, and
other litanies and anthems of Mary reminiscent of Catholic practices.[213]
Conversely, low church Anglicans rarely invoke the Blessed Virgin except in
certain hymns, such as the second stanza of Ye Watchers and Ye Holy
Ones.[212][214]
The Anglican Society of Mary was formed in 1931 and
maintains chapters in many countries. The purpose of the society is to foster
devotion to Mary among Anglicans.[133][215] High church Anglicans espouse
doctrines that are closer to Roman Catholics, and retain veneration for Mary,
such as Anglican pilgrimages to Our Lady of Lourdes, which have taken place
since 1963, and pilgrimages to Our Lady of Walsingham, which have taken place
for hundreds of years.[216]
Historically, there has been enough common ground between
Roman Catholics and Anglicans on Marian issues that in 2005, a joint statement
called Mary: grace and hope in Christ was produced through ecumenical meetings
of Anglicans and Roman Catholic theologians. This document, informally known as
the "Seattle Statement", is not formally endorsed by either the
Catholic Church or the Anglican Communion, but is viewed by its authors as the
beginning of a joint understanding of Mary.[133][217]
Methodist
Methodists do not have any additional teachings on the
Virgin Mary except from what is mentioned in Scripture and the ecumenical
Creeds. As such, Methodists generally accept the doctrine of the virgin birth,
but reject the doctrine of the Immaculate Conception.[218] John Wesley, the
principal founder of the Methodist movement within the Church of England,
believed that Mary "continued a pure and unspotted virgin", thus
upholding the doctrine of the perpetual virginity of Mary.[219][220]
Contemporary Methodism holds that Mary was a virgin before, during, and
immediately after the birth of Christ.[221][222] In addition, some Methodists
also hold the doctrine of the Assumption of Mary as a pious opinion.[223]
Nontrinitarian
Nontrinitarians, such as Unitarians, Christadelphians,
Jehovah's Witnesses, and Latter Day Saints[224] also acknowledge Mary as the
biological mother of Jesus Christ, but most reject any immaculate conception
and do not recognize Marian titles such as "Mother of God". The
Latter Day Saint movement's view affirms the virgin birth of Jesus[225] and
Christ's divinity, but only as a separate being than God the Father. The Book
of Mormon refers to Mary by name in prophecies and describes her as "most
beautiful and fair above all other virgins"[226] and as a "precious
and chosen vessel."[227][228]
In nontrinitarian groups that are also Christian
mortalists, Mary is not seen as an intercessor between humankind and Jesus,
whom mortalists would consider "asleep", awaiting resurrection.[229]
Jewish
The issue of the parentage of Jesus in the Talmud also
affects Jewish views of Mary. However, the Talmud does not mention Mary by
name, and is considerate rather than only polemic.[230][231] The story about
Panthera is also found in the Toledot Yeshu, the literary origins of which can
not be traced with any certainty, and given that it is unlikely to go before
the 4th century, the time is too late to include authentic remembrances of
Jesus.[232] The Blackwell Companion to Jesus states that the Toledot Yeshu has
no historical facts and was perhaps created as a tool for warding off
conversions to Christianity.[233] The tales from the Toledot Yeshu did impart a
negative picture of Mary to ordinary Jewish readers.[234] The circulation of
the Toledot Yeshu was widespread among European and Middle Eastern Jewish
communities since the 9th century.[235] The name Panthera may be a distortion
of the term parthenos ("virgin") and Raymond E. Brown considers the story
of Panthera a fanciful explanation of the birth of Jesus that includes very
little historical evidence.[236] Robert Van Voorst states that because Toledot
Yeshu is a medieval document with its lack of a fixed form and orientation
towards a popular audience, it is "most unlikely" to have reliable
historical information.[237] Stacks of the copies of the Talmud were burnt upon
a court order after the 1240 Disputation for allegedly containing material
defaming the character of Mary.[234]
Islamic
Main article: Mary in Islam
The Virgin Mary holds a singularly exalted place in Islam,
and she is considered by the Quran to have been the greatest woman in the
history of humankind. The Islamic scripture recounts the Divine Promise given
to Mary as being: ""O Mary! Surely Allah has selected you, purified
you, and chosen you over all women of the world" (3:42).
Mary is often referred to by Muslims by the honorific title
Sayedetina ("Our Lady"). She is mentioned in the Quran as the
daughter of Imran.[238]
Moreover, Mary is the only woman named in the Quran and she
is mentioned or referred to in the scripture a total of 50 times.[k] Mary holds
a singularly distinguished and honored position among women in the Quran. A
sura (chapter) in the Quran is titled "Maryam" (Mary), the only sura
in the Quran named after a woman, in which the story of Mary (Maryam) and Jesus
(Isa) is recounted according to the view of Jesus in Islam.[15]
Birth
In a narration of hadith from Imam Ja'far al-Sadiq, he
mentions that Allah revealed to Imran, "I will grant you a boy, blessed,
one who will cure the blind and the leper and one who will raise the dead by My
permission. And I will send him as an apostle to the Children of Israel."
Then Imran related the story to his wife, Hannah, the mother of Mary. When she
became pregnant, she conceived it was a boy, but when she gave birth to a girl,
she stated "Oh my Lord! Verily I have delivered a female, and the male is
not like the female, for a girl will not be a prophet," to which Allah replies
in the Quran, "Allah knows better what has been delivered" (3:36).
When Allah bestowed Jesus to Mary, he fulfilled his promise to Imran.[239]
Motherhood
Mary was declared (uniquely along with Jesus) to be a
"Sign of God" to humanity;[240] as one who "guarded her
chastity";[52] an "obedient one";[52] and dedicated by her
mother to Allah whilst still in the womb;[53] uniquely (amongst women)
"Accepted into service by God";[241] cared for by (one of the
prophets according to Islam) Zakariya (Zacharias);[241] that in her childhood
she resided in the Temple and uniquely had access to Al-Mihrab (understood to
be the Holy of Holies), and was provided with heavenly "provisions"
by God.[241][238]
Mary is also called a "Chosen One";[242] a
"Purified One";[242] a "Truthful one";[243] her child
conceived through "a Word from God";[244] and "chosen you above
the women of the worlds (the material and heavenly worlds)".[242]
The Quran relates detailed narrative accounts of Maryam
(Mary) in two places, 3:35-47 and 19:16-34. These state beliefs in both the
Immaculate Conception of Mary and the virgin birth of Jesus.[245][246][247] The
account given in Surah Maryam 19 is nearly identical with that in the Gospel
according to Luke, and both of these (Luke, Sura 19) begin with an account of
the visitation of an angel upon Zakariya (Zecharias) and "Good News of the
birth of Yahya (John)", followed by the account of the annunciation. It
mentions how Mary was informed by an angel that she would become the mother of
Jesus through the actions of God alone.[248]
In the Islamic tradition, Mary and Jesus were the only
children who could not be touched by Satan at the moment of their birth, for
God imposed a veil between them and Satan.[249][250] According to the author
Shabbir Akhtar, the Islamic perspective on Mary's Immaculate Conception is
compatible with the Catholic doctrine of the same topic.
"O People of the Book! Do not go to extremes regarding
your faith; say nothing about Allah except the truth. The Messiah, Jesus, son
of Mary, was no more than a messenger of Allah and the fulfilment of His Word
through Mary and a spirit ˹created by a command˺ from Him. So believe
in Allah and His messengers and do not say, "Trinity." Stop!—for your
own good. Allah is only One God. Glory be to Him! He is far above having a son!
To Him belongs whatever is in the heavens and whatever is on the earth. And
Allah is sufficient as a Trustee of Affairs.
— Surah
An-Nisa 4:171[251][252]
The Quran says that Jesus was the result of a virgin birth.
The most detailed account of the annunciation and birth of Jesus is provided in
Suras 3 and 19 of the Quran, where it is written that God sent an angel to
announce that she could shortly expect to bear a son, despite being a
virgin.[253]
Druze faith
The Druze faith holds the Virgin Mary, known as Sayyida
Maryam, in high regard.[131] Although the Druze religion is distinct from
mainstream Islam and Christianity, it incorporates elements from both and
honors many of their figures, including the Virgin Mary.[131] The Druze revere Mary
as a holy and pure figure, embodying virtue and piety.[254][131] She is
respected not only for her role as the mother of Messiah Jesus but also for her
spiritual purity and dedication to God.[254][131] In regions where Druze and
Christians coexist, such as parts of Lebanon, Syria and Israel, the veneration
of Mary often reflects a blend of traditions.[255] Shared pilgrimage sites and
mutual respect for places like the Church of Saidet et Tallé in Deir el
Qamar,[256] the Our Lady of Lebanon shrine in Harrisa, the Our Lady of Saidnaya
Monastery in Saidnaya, and the Stella Maris Monastery in Haifa exemplify
this.[255]
Historical records and writings by authors like
Pierre-Marie Martin and Glenn Bowman show that Druze leaders and community
members have historically shown deep reverence for Marian sites.[16] They often
sought her intercession before battles or during times of need, demonstrating a
cultural and spiritual integration of Marian veneration into their religious
practices.[16]
Bahá'í Faith
The Bahá'í Faith venerates Mary as the mother of Jesus. The
Kitáb-i-Íqán, the primary theological work of the Bahá'í religion, describes
Mary as "that most beauteous countenance," and "that veiled and
immortal Countenance." The Bahá'í writings claim Jesus Christ was
"conceived of the Holy Ghost"[257] and assert that in the Bahá'í
Faith "the reality of the mystery of the Immaculacy of the Virgin Mary is
confessed."[258]
Biblical scholars
The statement found in Matthew 1:25 that Joseph did not
have sexual relations with Mary before she gave birth to Jesus has been debated
among scholars, with some saying that she did not remain a virgin and some
saying that she was a perpetual virgin.[259] Other scholars contend that the
Greek word heos ("until") denotes a state up to a point, but does not
mean that the state ended after that point, and that Matthew 1:25 does not
confirm or deny the virginity of Mary after the birth of Jesus.[260][261][262]
According to Biblical scholar Bart Ehrman, the Hebrew word almah, meaning young
woman of childbearing age, was translated into Greek as parthenos, which often,
though not always, refers to a young woman who has never had sexual
intercourse. In Isaiah 7:14, it is commonly believed by Christians to be the
prophecy of the Virgin Mary referred to in Matthew 1:23.[263] While Matthew and
Luke give differing versions of the virgin birth, John quotes the uninitiated
Philip and the disbelieving Jews gathered at Galilee referring to Joseph as
Jesus' father.[264][265][266][267]
Other biblical verses have also been debated; for example,
the reference made by Paul the Apostle that Jesus was made "of the seed of
David according to the flesh" (Romans 1:3)[268] meaning that he was a
descendant of David through Joseph.[269]
Pre-Christian Rome
From the early stages of Christianity, belief in the
virginity of Mary and the virgin conception of Jesus, as stated in the gospels,
holy and supernatural, was used by detractors, both political and religious, as
a topic for discussions, debates, and writings, specifically aimed to challenge
the divinity of Jesus and thus Christians and Christianity alike.[270] In the
2nd century, as part of his anti-Christian polemic The True Word, the pagan
philosopher Celsus contended that Jesus was actually the illegitimate son of a
Roman soldier named Panthera.[271] The Church Father Origen dismissed this
assertion as a complete fabrication in his apologetic treatise Against
Celsus.[272] How far Celsus sourced his view from Jewish sources remains a
subject of discussion.[273]
Christian devotions
Main article: Marian devotions
History
2nd century
Justin Martyr was among the first to draw a parallel
between Eve and Mary. This derives from his comparison of Adam and Jesus. In
his Dialogue with Trypho, written sometime between 155 and 167,[274] he
explains:
He became man by the Virgin, in order that the disobedience
which proceeded from the serpent might receive its destruction in the same
manner in which it derived its origin. For Eve, who was a virgin and undefiled,
having conceived the word of the serpent, brought forth disobedience and death.
But the Virgin Mary received faith and joy, when the angel Gabriel announced
the good tidings to her that the Spirit of the Lord would come upon her, and
the power of the Highest would overshadow her: wherefore also the Holy Thing
begotten of her is the Son of God; and she replied, 'Be it unto me according to
thy word." And by her has He been born, to whom we have proved so many
scriptures refer, and by whom God destroys both the serpent and those angels
and men who are like him; but works deliverance from death to those who repent
of their wickedness and believe upon Him.[275]
It is possible that the teaching of Mary as the New Eve was
part of the apostolic tradition rather than merely Justin Martyr's own
creation, according to Serafim Seppälä.[276] Irenaeus, bishop of Lyon, also
takes up this parallel, in Against Heresies, written about the year 182:[277]
In accordance with this design, Mary the Virgin is found
obedient, saying, "Behold the handmaid of the Lord; be it unto me
according to your word." Luke 1:38 But Eve was disobedient; for she did
not obey when as yet she was a virgin. ... having become disobedient, was made
the cause of death, both to herself and to the entire human race; so also did
Mary, having a man betrothed [to her], and being nevertheless a virgin, by
yielding obedience, become the cause of salvation, both to herself and the
whole human race. And on this account does the law term a woman betrothed to a
man, the wife of him who had betrothed her, although she was as yet a virgin;
thus indicating the back-reference from Mary to Eve,...For the Lord, having
been born "the First-begotten of the dead," Revelation 1:5 and
receiving into His bosom the ancient fathers, has regenerated them into the
life of God, He having been made Himself the beginning of those that live, as
Adam became the beginning of those who die. 1 Corinthians 15:20–22 Wherefore
also Luke, commencing the genealogy with the Lord, carried it back to Adam,
indicating that it was He who regenerated them into the Gospel of life, and not
they Him. And thus also it was that the knot of Eve's disobedience was loosed
by the obedience of Mary. For what the virgin Eve had bound fast through
unbelief, this did the virgin Mary set free through faith.[278]
During the second century, the Gospel of James was also
written. According to Stephen J. Shoemaker, "its interest in Mary as a
figure in her own right and its reverence for her sacred purity mark the
beginnings of Marian piety within early Christianity".[279]
3rd to 5th centuries
During the Age of Martyrs and at the latest in the fourth
century, the majority of the most essential ideas of Marian devotion already
appeared in some form – in the writings of the Church Fathers, apocrypha and
visual arts. The lack of sources makes it unclear whether the devotion to Mary
played a role in liturgical use during the first centuries of
Christianity.[280] In the 4th century, Marian devotion in a liturgical context
becomes evident.[281]
The earliest known Marian prayer (the Sub tuum praesidium,
or Beneath Thy Protection) is from the 3rd century (perhaps 270), and its text
was rediscovered in 1917 on a papyrus in Egypt.[282][283] According to some
sources, Theonas of Alexandria consecrated one of the first holy places
dedicated to Mary during the late 3rd century. An even earlier place has been
found in Nazareth, dated to the previous century by some scholars.[284]
Following the Edict of Milan in 313, by the 5th century artistic images of Mary
began to appear in public and larger churches were being dedicated to Mary,
such as the Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore in Rome.[285][286][287] At the
Council of Ephesus in 431, Mary was officially declared the Theotokos, meaning "God-bearer"[288]
or "Mother of God". The term had possibly been used for
centuries[289] or at least since the early 300s, when it seems to have already
been in established use.[290]
The Council of Ephesus was long thought to have been held
at a church in Ephesus which had been dedicated to Mary about a hundred years
before.[291][292][293] Though, recent archeological surveys indicate that St.
Mary's Church in Ephesus did not exist at the time of the Council or, at least,
the building was not dedicated to Mary before 500.[294] The Church of the Seat
of Mary in Judea was built shortly after the introduction of Marian liturgy at
the council of Ephesus, in 456, by a widow named Ikelia.[295]
According to the 4th-century heresiologist Epiphanius of
Salamis, the Virgin Mary was worshipped as a mother goddess in the Christian
sect of Collyridianism, which was found throughout Arabia sometime during the
300s AD. Collyridianism had women performing priestly acts, and made bread
offerings to the Virgin Mary. The group was condemned as heretical by the Roman
Catholic Church and was preached against by Epiphanius of Salamis, who wrote
about the group in his writings titled Panarion.[296]
Byzantium
During the era of the Byzantine Empire, Mary was venerated
as the virginal Mother of God and as an intercessor.[297]
Ephesus is a cultic centre of Mary, the site of the first
church dedicated to her and the rumoured place of her death. Ephesus was
previously a centre for worship of Artemis, a virgin goddess; the Temple of
Artemis there is regarded as one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. The
cult of Mary was furthered by Queen Theodora in the 6th century.[298][299]
According to William E. Phipps, in the book Survivals of Roman Religion,[300]
"Gordon Laing argues convincingly that the worship of Artemis as both
virgin and mother at the grand Ephesian temple contributed to the veneration of
Mary."[301]
Middle Ages
The Middle Ages saw many legends about Mary, her parents,
and even her grandparents.[302] Mary's popularity increased dramatically from
the 12th century,[303] linked to the Roman Catholic Church's designation of
Mary as Mediatrix.[304][305]
Post-Reformation
Over the centuries, devotion and veneration to Mary has
varied greatly among Christian traditions. For instance, while Protestants show
scant attention to Marian prayers or devotions, of all the saints whom the
Orthodox venerate, the most honored is Mary, who is considered "more
honorable than the Cherubim and more glorious than the Seraphim".[33]
Orthodox theologian Sergei Bulgakov wrote: "Love and
veneration for the Virgin is the soul of Orthodox piety. A faith in Christ
which does not include [...] His mother is another faith, another Christianity
from that of the Orthodox Church."[179]
Although the Catholics and the Orthodox may honor and
venerate Mary, they do not view her as divine, nor do they worship her. Roman
Catholics view Mary as subordinate to Christ, but uniquely so, in that she is
seen as above all other creatures.[306] Similarly, Bulgakov wrote that the
Orthodox view Mary as "superior to all created beings" and
"ceaselessly pray for her intercession". However, she is not
considered a "substitute for the One Mediator" who is Christ.[179]
"Let Mary be in honor, but let worship be given to the Lord", he
wrote.[307] Similarly, Catholics do not worship Mary as a divine being, but
rather "hyper-venerate" her. In Roman Catholic theology, the term
hyperdulia is reserved for Marian veneration, latria for the worship of God,
and dulia for the veneration of other saints and angels.[308] The definition of
the three level hierarchy of latria, hyperdulia and dulia goes back to the
Second Council of Nicaea in 787.[309]
Devotions to artistic depictions of Mary vary among
Christian traditions. There is a long tradition of Catholic Marian art and no
image permeates Catholic art as does the image of Madonna and Child.[310] The
icon of the Virgin Theotokos with Christ is, without doubt, the most venerated
icon in the Orthodox Church.[311] Both Roman Catholic and Orthodox Christians
venerate images and icons of Mary, given that the Second Council of Nicaea in
787 permitted their veneration with the understanding that those who venerate
the image are venerating the reality of the person it represents,[312] and the
842 Synod of Constantinople confirming the same.[313] According to Orthodox
piety and traditional practice, however, believers ought to pray before and
venerate only flat, two-dimensional icons, and not three-dimensional
statues.[314]
The Anglican position towards Mary is in general more
conciliatory than that of Protestants at large and in a book he wrote about
praying with the icons of Mary, Rowan Williams, former archbishop of
Canterbury, said: "It is not only that we cannot understand Mary without
seeing her as pointing to Christ; we cannot understand Christ without seeing
his attention to Mary."[133][315]
On 4 September 1781, 11 families of pobladores arrived from
the Gulf of California and established a city in the name of King Carlos III.
The small town was named El Pueblo de Nuestra Señora de los Ángeles de la
Porciúncula (after our Lady of the Angels), a city that today is known simply
as Los Angeles. In an attempt to revive the custom of religious processions
within the Archdiocese of Los Angeles, in September 2011 the Queen of Angels
Foundation, and founder Mark Anchor Albert, inaugurated an annual Grand Marian
Procession in the heart of Downtown Los Angeles' historic core. This yearly
procession, held on the last Saturday of August and intended to coincide with
the anniversary of the founding of the City of Los Angeles, begins at the
Cathedral of Our Lady of the Angels and concludes at the parish of La Iglesia
de Nuestra Señora Reina de los Angeles which is part of the Los Angeles Plaza
Historic District, better known as "La Placita".[316][317]
Feasts
Main article: Marian feast days
The earliest feasts that relate to Mary grew out of the
cycle of feasts that celebrated the Nativity of Jesus. Given that according to
the Gospel of Luke (Luke 2:22–40),[318] 40 days after the birth of Jesus, along
with the Presentation of Jesus at the Temple, Mary was purified according to
Jewish customs. The Feast of the Purification began to be celebrated by the 5th
century, and became the "Feast of Simeon" in Byzantium.[319]
In the 7th and 8th centuries, four more Marian feasts were
established in Eastern Christianity. In the West, a feast dedicated to Mary,
just before Christmas was celebrated in the Churches of Milan and Ravenna in
Italy in the 7th century. The four Roman Marian feasts of Purification,
Annunciation, Assumption and Nativity of Mary were gradually and sporadically
introduced into England by the 11th century.[319]
Over time, the number and nature of feasts (and the
associated Titles of Mary) and the venerative practices that accompany them
have varied a great deal among diverse Christian traditions. Overall, there are
significantly more titles, feasts and venerative Marian practices among Roman
Catholics than any other Christians traditions.[132] Some such feasts relate to
specific events, such as the Feast of Our Lady of Victory, based on the 1571
victory of the Papal States in the Battle of Lepanto.[320][321]
Differences in feasts may also originate from doctrinal
issues—the Feast of the Assumption is such an example. Given that there is no
agreement among all Christians on the circumstances of the death, Dormition or
Assumption of Mary, the feast of assumption is celebrated among some
denominations and not others.[32][322] While the Roman Catholic Church celebrates
the Feast of the Assumption on 15 August, some Eastern Catholics celebrate it
as Dormition of the Theotokos, and may do so on 28 August, if they follow the
Julian calendar. The Eastern Orthodox also celebrate it as the Dormition of the
Theotokos, one of their 12 Great Feasts. Protestants do not celebrate this, or
any other Marian feasts.[32]
Relics
The veneration of Marian relics used to be common practice
before the Reformation. It was later largely surpassed by the veneration of
Marian images.
Bodily relics
As Mary's body is believed by most Christians to have been
taken up into the glory of heaven, her bodily relics have been limited to hair,
nails and breast milk.
According to John Calvin's 1543 Treatise on Relics, her
hair was exposed for veneration in several churches, including in Rome,
Saint-Flour, Cluny and Nevers.[323]
In this book, Calvin criticized the veneration of the Holy
Milk due to the lack of biblical references to it and the doubts about the
veracity of such relics:
With regard to the milk, there is not perhaps a town, a
convent, or nunnery, where it is not shown in large or small quantities.
Indeed, had the Virgin been a wet-nurse her whole life, or a dairy, she could
not have produced more than is shown as hers in various parts. How they
obtained all this milk they do not say, and it is superfluous here to remark
that there is no foundation in the Gospels for these foolish and blasphemous
extravagances.
Although the veneration of Marian bodily relics is no
longer a common practice today, there are some remaining traces of it, such as
the Chapel of the Milk Grotto in Bethlehem, named after Mary's milk.
Clothes
Clothes which are believed to have belonged to Mary include
the Cincture of the Theotokos kept in the Vatopedi monastery and her Holy
Girdle kept in Holy Belt Church, Homs.
Other relics are said to have been collected during later
Marian apparitions, such as her robe, veil, and part of her belt which were
kept in Blachernae church in Constantinople after she appeared there during the
10th century. These relics, now lost, are celebrated by the Eastern Orthodox
and Byzantine Catholic Churches as the Intercession of the Theotokos.
Few other objects are said to have been touched or given by
Mary during apparitions, notably a 1531 image printed on a tilma, known as Our
Lady of Guadalupe, belonging to Juan Diego.
Places
Places where Mary is believed to have lived include the
Basilica della Santa Casa in Loreto, Marche, and the House of the Virgin Mary
in Ephesus.
Eastern Christians believe that she died and was put in the
Tomb of the Virgin Mary near Jerusalem before the Assumption.
The belief that Mary's house was in Ephesus is recent, as
it was claimed in the 19th century based on the visions of Anne Catherine
Emmerich, an Augustinian nun in Germany.[324][325] It has since been named as
the House of the Virgin Mary by Roman Catholic pilgrims who consider it the
place where Mary lived until her assumption.[326][327][328][329] The Gospel of
John states that Mary went to live with the Disciple whom Jesus loved,[330]
traditionally identified as John the Evangelist[331] and John the Apostle.
Irenaeus and Eusebius of Caesarea wrote in their histories that John later went
to Ephesus, which may provide the basis for the early belief that Mary also
lived in Ephesus with John.[332][333]
The apparition of Our Lady of the Pillar in the first
century was believed to be a bilocation, as it occurred in Spain while Mary was
living in Ephesus or Jerusalem. The pillar on which she was standing during the
apparition is believed to be kept in the Cathedral-Basilica of Our Lady of the
Pillar in Zaragoza and is therefore venerated as a relics, as it was in
physical contact with Mary.
In arts
In paintings, Mary is traditionally portrayed in blue. This
tradition can trace its origin to the Byzantine Empire, from c. 500 AD,
where blue was "the colour of an empress". A more practical
explanation for the use of this colour is that in Medieval and Renaissance
Europe, the blue pigment was derived from the rock lapis lazuli, a stone of
greater value than gold, which was imported from Afghanistan. Beyond a
painter's retainer, patrons were expected to purchase any gold or lapis lazuli
to be used in the painting. Hence, it was an expression of devotion and glorification
to swathe the Virgin in gowns of blue. Transformations in visual depictions of
Mary from the 13th to 15th centuries mirror her "social" standing
within the Church and in society.[334]
Traditional representations of Mary include the crucifixion
scene, called Stabat Mater.[335][336] While not recorded in the Gospel
accounts, Mary cradling the dead body of her son is a common motif in art,
called a "pietà" or "pity".
In the Egyptian, Eritrean, and Ethiopian tradition, Mary
has been portrayed in story and paint for centuries.[337] Beginning in the
1600s, however, highland Ethiopians began portraying Mary performing a variety
of miracles for the faithful, including paintings of her giving water to a
thirsty dog, healing monks with her breast milk, and saving a man eaten by a
crocodile.[338] Over 1,000 such stories about her exist in this tradition, and
about one hundred of those have hundreds of paintings each, in various
manuscripts, adding up to thousands of paintings.[339]
Cinematic portrayals
Mary has been portrayed in various films and on television,
including:
The Miracle (1912) color silent film of the 1911 play The
Miracle, a statue of Mary, played by Maria Carmi, comes to life
Das Mirakel (1912) silent film; a German version of the
1911 play The Miracle
The Song of Bernadette (1943 film), played by Linda Darnell.
The Living Christ Series (1951 non-theatrical,
non-television film twelve-part series), played by Eileen Rowe.
The Miracle of Our Lady of Fatima (1952 film), played by
Virginia Gibson.
Ben-Hur (1959 film), played by José Greci.[340]
The Miracle (1959 film; a loose remake of the 1912 film Das
Mirakel)
King of Kings (1961 film), played by Siobhán McKenna.[341]
The Greatest Story Ever Told (1965 film), played by Dorothy
McGuire.[342]
Jesus of Nazareth (1977 two-part television miniseries),
played by Olivia Hussey.[343]
The Last Temptation of Christ (1988 film), played by Verna
Bloom.[344]
Mary, Mother of Jesus (1999 television film), played by
Pernilla August.[345]
Saint Mary (2001 film), played by Shabnam Gholikhani.[346]
The Passion of the Christ (2004 film), played by Maia
Morgenstern.[347]
Imperium: Saint Peter (2005 television film), played by
Lina Sastri.
Color of the Cross (2006 film), played by Debbi
Morgan.[348]
The Nativity Story (2006 film), played by Keisha
Castle-Hughes.[349]
The Passion (2008 television miniseries), played by Paloma
Baeza.[350][351]
The Nativity (2010 four-part miniseries), played by Tatiana
Maslany.
Mary of Nazareth (2012 film), played by Alissa Jung.
Son of God (2014 film), played by Roma Downey.[352]
The Chosen (2017 TV series), played by Vanessa Benavente.
Mary Magdalene (2018 film), played by Irit Sheleg.[353]
Jesus: His Life (2019 TV series), played by Houda
Echouafni.[354]
Fatima (2020 film), played by Joana Ribeiro.
Mary (2024 film), played by Noa Cohen.
Music
Claudio Monteverdi: Vespro della Beata Vergine (1610)
Johann Sebastian Bach: Magnificat (1723, rev. 1733)
Franz Schubert: Ave Maria (1835)
Charles Gounod: Ave Maria (1859)
John Tavener: Mother and Child, setting a poem by Brian
Keeble for choir, organ and temple gong