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“For the law of the Spirit of life in Christ
Jesus has made me free from the law of sin and death.”
(Romans
8:2)
Circumcision
- Britannica
circumcision
ritual surgical procedure
Also known as: male circumcision
Britannica Editors
July 7, 2026 •History
Circumcision, the operation of cutting away all or part of
the foreskin (prepuce) of the penis. The origin of the practice is unknown,
although the widespread distribution of circumcision as a ritual suggests great
antiquity. Circumcision is generally viewed by anthropologists as a practice
through which various aspects of social identity are inscribed upon the human
body, such as gender, purity, or social or sexual maturity.
While most scholars agree on these generalities, the
specific timing, meanings, and rites associated with circumcision have varied
greatly over time and space. In ancient Egypt, boys were generally circumcised
between ages 6 and 12. Among Ethiopians, Jews, some Muslims, and some other
groups, the operation is performed shortly after birth or perhaps a few years
after birth. Some Arab groups traditionally perform the operation immediately
before marriage. Among most other peoples who practice it ritually,
circumcision is performed at puberty as a passage rite.
In many cultures, circumcision is also regarded as being of
profound religious significance. In Judaism, for instance, it represents the
fulfillment of the covenant between God and Abraham (Genesis 17:10–27), the
first divine command of the Pentateuch—that every male child shall be
circumcised. That Christians were not obliged to be circumcised was first
recorded biblically in Acts 15.
Medically, the operation consists of the cutting of the
foreskin to allow its free retraction behind the glans penis (the conical
head). The foreskin consists of a double layer of skin that, without
circumcision, more or less completely covers the glans penis. Under the inner
layer of foreskin there are situated a number of glands that secrete a
cheeselike substance called smegma. Accumulation of smegma beneath the foreskin
may result in great discomfort and may serve as the source of a rather
penetrating odour if cleanliness and hygiene are not observed.
In Western countries, circumcision became increasingly
common during the 19th century because the medical establishment defined it as
a hygienic procedure. By the closing decades of the 20th century, it had
generally fallen out of favour except in cases of medical or religious
necessity. The United States proved to be the exception to this trend; in the
early 21st century most boys there continued to be circumcised shortly after
birth, at least in cases where there were no compelling reasons for delay. A
U.S. countercircumcision movement gained credence in 1971 when the American
Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) found that there was “no absolute medical
indication for routine circumcision.” In 2012, following an extensive review of
scientific research, the AAP issued an updated policy statement, in which it
concluded that circumcision does in fact offer certain health advantages (e.g.,
reduction in risk of urinary tract infection). The benefits, however, only
marginally outweigh the risks, and the AAP was unable to recommend routine
circumcision; the decision of whether to have the procedure performed was left
to parents.
Advocates of circumcision cite studies indicating that
circumcised men have a lower incidence of AIDS, syphilis, and other sexually
transmitted diseases than uncircumcised men. In addition, their female partners
have a lower risk of cervical cancer. In 2007 the World Health Organization
(WHO) reviewed several studies of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) in men
living in Africa and found that male circumcision reduced their risk of
heterosexually acquired infection by significant amounts (ranging from 48 to
more than 60 percent). The resulting WHO report recommended that circumcision
become a standard tool within comprehensive programs for the prevention of HIV,
but also cautioned that:
Men and women who consider male circumcision as an HIV
preventive method must continue to use other forms of protection such as male
and female condoms, delaying sexual debut and reducing the number of sexual
partners.
Researchers have issued two important cautionary statements
about these findings. First, their results are specific to heterosexual
activity, and circumcision may not be protective for those engaging in
homosexual intimacy. Second, the opposite findings apply to the practice
sometimes known as female circumcision, also called female genital cutting
(FGC), which is more likely to increase the rate of HIV transmission than to
reduce it.
This article was most recently revised and updated by Kara
Rogers.